International E-publication: Publish Projects, Dissertation, Theses, Books, Souvenir, Conference Proceeding with ISBN. 

Prevalence of bacteria resistant to antibiotics in reclaimed domestic wastewater used for irrigation in Maasai Mara University African Medicinal Botanical Garden, Narok

    , ,

Author Affiliations

  • 1Department of Biological Sciences, Maasai Mara University, Kenya
  • 2Department of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Maasai Mara University, Kenya
  • 3Department of Environmental Studies, Geography and Planning; Maasai Mara University, Kenya

Int. Res. J. Environment Sci., Volume 15, Issue (1), Pages 7-13, January,22 (2026)

Abstract

Increase in global population and urbanization has resulted in escalation in water consumption and increased generation of waste water which has posed a sanitation challenge. Point sources like wastewater treatment plants are assumed to participate in discharge and availability of bacteria which are resistant to antibiotics into the environment. This study aimed to isolate and determine antimicrobial profile of bacterial pathogens from wastewater in the Maasai Mara University wastewater treatment plant, located at the Maasai Mara University African Medicinal Botanical Garden, Narok, Kenya. Sample collection using quota sampling method and analysis were carried out using standard microbiological protocols. Bacterial isolation was done on Eosin methylene blue and Mac Conkey agar. Identification of isolates was performed using the IMVIC panel of biochemical tests. Additionally, the microbial isolates were exposed to a panel of antibiotics using the Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method to determine their resistance pattern to commonly used antibiotics. Bacterial types obtained from the wastewater used for irrigation at the Botanical Garden included Enterobacter spp, Proteus vulgaris, Proteus mirabilis and Escherichia coli. These isolates were subjected to ampicillin, tetracycline, cotrimoxazole, streptomycin, kanamycin, gentamycin, sulfamethoxazole and chloramphenicol antibiotics. Their activity ranged from susceptible, intermediate to resistant against all the antibiotics for all the isolates under study. The E. coli, P. vulgaris and P. mirabilis strains isolated exhibited multi-drug resistance. 2-way ANOVA results showed that there was no significant difference in antibiotic susceptibility to the panel of antibiotics (p=0.282) by the isolates. It was noted that the reclaimed wastewater utilized for irrigation of the Botanical Garden was contaminated with pathogenic bacteria that were resistant to commonly used antibiotics and posed an obvious threat to the health of animals, visitors, students and staff. Widespread unregulated use of antibiotics maybe prevalent among the University community, the source of the wastewater. Further treatment of the water should therefore be carried out in order to eliminate the microbes before release to the environment.

References

  1. Idris, I. A., & Yahaya, A. S. D. (2023)., Indiscriminate Use of Antibiotic in Commercial Poultry Farms., Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, 1486–1489. https://doi.org/10.51791/njap.vi.7017,
  2. Badrul, H., Md, Z.A & Grant, R. (2024)., Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated in Poultry farms in Bangladesh that use antibiotics extensively., Microbial Drug Resistance, 30(11). https://doi.org/10.1089/ mdr.2024.0005,
  3. Serwecinska, L. (2020)., Antimicrobials and Antibiotic- Resistant Bacteria: A Risk to the Environment and to Public Health., Water, 12(12), 3313. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w12123313,
  4. Diana, N.B., Sigrid, M.S., & Jules, B.L. (2013)., Reclamation of Used Urban Waters for Irrigation Purposes- A Review of Treatment Technologies., Journal of Environmental Management, 122, 85-98. https://doi.org /10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.03.012,
  5. Omar, A., Souad, A. & Khadija, B. (2021)., Pathogenic Parasites in Sewage Irrigated Crops and Soil: Pattern of Occurrence and Health Implications., International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 32(7), 1594-1608. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1898551
  6. Priya, Y., Rahul, P.S., Rajan, K.G., Twinkle, P., Arnit, R., Sandeep, K.S., Kaushalendra, Kapil, D.P. & Ajay, K. (2023)., Chapter- Seven- Contamination of Soil and Food Chain through Wastewater Application., Advances in Chemical Pollution, Environmental Management and Protection, 9, 109-132 https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.apmp. 2022.11.001,
  7. WHO (2024)., WHO bacterial priority pathogens list, 2024: Bacterial pathogens of public health importance to guide research, development and strategies to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance., WHO Publications. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240093461
  8. CDC (2025)., CDC Report finds a sharp rise in dangerous drug-resistant bacteria., CDC Newsroom. https:// www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2025/2025-cdc-report- finds-sharp-rise-in-dangerous-drug-resistant-bacteria.html,
  9. Lizbeth, E.R., Edgar, A., Octavio, A.C., Beatriz, S.S., Rutilio, O., Marta, M., Xunde, L., Juan, C., Einar, V. & Manuel, G. (2022)., Worldwide Traceability of Antibiotic Residues from Livestock in Wastewater and Soil: A Systemic Review., Animals, 12(1), 60 https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ani12010060,
  10. Gwenzi, W., Ngaza, N., Marumure, J., &Makwava, Z. (2023)., Occurrence and Health Risks of Antibiotic Resistance in African Aquatic Systems. In: Abia, A.L.K., Essack, S.Y.(Eds)., Antimicrobial Research and One Health in Africa. Springer. https://link.springer.com/ chapter/ 10.1007/978-3-031-23796-6_7,
  11. Kairigo, P., Ngumba, E., Dandberg, L., Gachanja, A., & Tuhkanen, T. (2022)., Occurrence of Antibiotics and Risk of Antibiotic Resistance Evolution in Selected Kenyan Wastewaters, surface waters and sediments., Science of the Total Environment, 720. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2020.137580,
  12. Mathenge, S.G., Njoroge, W.G., & Mutuku, O.M. (2018)., Assessment of Selected Antibiotics in Untreated Wastewater and Vegetables in Urban and Peri-urban Farms in Eastern Nairobi City, Kenya., European Journal of Pharmaceutical and Medical Research, 5(19), 117-122.
  13. Karimi, K.J., Ngumba, E., Ahmad, A., Duse, A.G., Olago, D., & Ndwigah, S.N. (2013)., Contamination of Groundwater with Sulfamethoxazole and Antibiotic Resistant Escherichia coli in Informal Settlements in Kisumu, Kenya., PLOS Water, 2(4), e0000076. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pwat.0000076,
  14. Onyango, J.A., Githaiga, B., Njuguna, S., Wanzala, W., Yan, X. (2020)., Harnessing the potential of common water hyacinth as an industrial raw material for the production of quality biofuel briquettes., SN Applied Sciences, 2(8). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-3109-1,
  15. Singh, A. & Masaku, B. (2014)., Sampling techniques & determination of sample size in applied statistics research: an overview., International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, 2(11).
  16. Sonu, C. (2015)., Enumeration and Identification of Standard Plate Count Bacteria in Raw Water Supplies., Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 9(2).
  17. Mahmood, S. (2021)., Isolation, Identification and Antibiotic Sensitivity of E. coli and Salmonella species from hospital wastewater in Dhaka City., D Space Repository.
  18. Nanthini, S.V., Kumari, T.S., & Bakthasingh, L. (2021)., Assessment on Impact of Sewage in Coastal Pollution and Distribution of Fecal Pathogenic Bacteria With Reference to Antibiotic Resistance in the Coastal Area of Cape Comovin, India., Marine Pollution Bulletin,175,113-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113123
  19. Bauer, A.W., Kirby, W.M., Shevis, J.C., & Turck, M. (1966)., Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing by a Standardized Single Disk Method., American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 45(4), 493-496. https://doi.org/ 10.1093/ajcp/45.4_ts.493
  20. Belayneh, R.D., Eyayu, G., Mheret, T. & Mohamed, S. (2021)., Assessment of the Bacteriological Profile and Antibiotic Susceptibility Patterns of Wastewater in health Facilities of Ethiopia., International Journal of Microbiology. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/9969479,
  21. Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M. and Parker, J. (2006)., Brock Biology of Microorganisms: an International Edition, 11th ed., Prentice- Hall International, Inc, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
  22. Kanokhathai, B., & Jittima, C. (2011)., Biodegradation of Acrylamide by Enterobacter Aerogenes Isolated fromWastewater in Thailand., Journal of Environmental Sciences, 23(3), 396-403. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60422-6,
  23. Mahmoud, S.K., Mohamed, A.E., Ahmed, R.G., & Ehab, A.B. (2023)., Bioremediation of Industrial Wastewater Heavy Metals Using Solo and Consortium Enterobacter spp., Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195, (1357). https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10661-023-11951-x,
  24. Gemechu, A., Olifan, Z., Abdulhakim, M., Amante, A. & Asmera, B. (2018)., Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water Obtained from Main Sources, Reservoirs and Consumers Tap in Arba, Minch Town, Southern Ethiopia., African Journal of Microbiology Research, 12(24), 567-573 https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR2018.8871
  25. Shahabaldin, R.S., Mohanadors, P., Mohd, F., Shhreeshivadasan, C.S., & Fadzlin, S. (2016)., Effectiveness of Eichhornia crassipes in nutrient removal from Domestic Wastewater Based on Its Optimum Growth Rate., Desalination and Water Treatment, 57(1), 360-365
  26. Yoshihiro, S., Yuki, K., Ryota, F., Rikako, K., Ryumi, N., Emi, N. & Shoichiro, T. (2025)., Comparison of Antimicrobial- Resistant E. coli and other Coliforms from Upstream to Estuary Sections in Three Rivers with DifferentBasin Characteristics., Journal of Water and Health. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2025.128
  27. Xiang, C., Xiu, L. L., Ai-Ling, X., Zhi-Wen, S., Juan, Y., & Ming-Yue, G. (2019)., Seasonal Variability in the Microbial Community and Pathogens in Wastewater Final Effluents., Water, 11(12), 2586 https://doi.org/10.3390/ w11122586
  28. Singer, R.S., Naut, A.J., Sargeant, J.M., Hwang, H., Williams- Nguyen., & J. Bueno, T. (2017)., Systematic Review: impact of point sources on antibiotic- resistant bacteria in The Natural environment., Zoonoses and Public Health, 65(1), e162- e184. https://doi.org/10.1111/ zph.12426,
  29. Munir, M., Sorinolu, A.J., Tyagi, N., & Kumar, A. (2021)., Antibiotic resistance development and human health risks during wastewater reuse and biosolids application in Agriculture., Chemosphere, 265. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.chemosphere.2020.129032,
  30. Kumar, M., Chaminda, T., Honda, R. & Furumai, H. (2019)., Vulnerability of Urban Waters to Emerging Contaminants in India and Sri Lanka: Resilience Framework and Strategy., APN Science Bulletin, 9(1) http://doi:10.30852/ sb.2019.799,
  31. Attia, A.E., Wael, M.A., & Ahmed, N.I. (2015)., Prevalence of antibiotic resistant E. coli in some environmental sources polluted with wastewater., Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology Research, 5(5), 17-24.
  32. Denissen, J., Reyneke, B., Monique, W., Havenga, B., Barnard, T., Khan, S., & Khan, W. (2022)., Prevalence of ESKAPE pathogens in the environment: Antibiotic resistance Status, community- acquired infection and risk to human health., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2022. 114006,
  33. Zagui, G.S., Moreira, N.C., Santos, D.V., Paschoalato, C.F., Sierra, J.L, Nadal, M., Domingo, J., Darini, A.L., & Segura-Munoz, S.I. (2023)., Multidrug resistant Enterobacter spp in wastewater and surface water. Molecular characterization Beta- lactam resistance and metal tolerance genes., Environmental Research, 233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.116443,
  34. Serry, F.M., Gomaa, S.E., & Abbas, H.A. (2018)., Antimicrobial resistance of clinical Proteus mirabilis isolated from different sources., Zagazig Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 27(1), 57-63. https://doi.org/10.21608/zjps.2018.38156,
  35. Larsson, J.D.G. & Carl-Fredrick, F. (2022)., Antibiotic resistance in the environment., Nature Reviews Microbiology, 20, 257-269.
  36. Al-Gheethi, A.A., Mohamed, R.M.S., Efaq, A.W., &Alashim, A.M.K. (2015)., Reduction of Microbial Resk Associated with Grey Water by Disinfection Processes for Irrigation., Journal of Water Health, 14(3), 379-398.