Research Journal of Recent Sciences _________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502 Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 138 An Investigation of Macro and Micro Factors Affecting Sport Participation in Tehran Citizens, Iran Mohsen Alaee Rad, Farideh Ashraf Ganjouei and Hamid Sadjadi Hazaveh Physical Education Faculty, Exercise management Department, Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch, Tehran, IRAN Available online at: www.isca.in , www.isca.me Received 28th October 2013, revised 28th December 2013, accepted 2nd March 2014Abstract Today, people`s life style is changing due to technology and urbane life development. Not participating in physical activities, inactive and motionless life style has put all individuals of the society into danger. Meanwhile, participating in physical activities has been advised as a way of fighting against side effects of such life style. Inactive life has also been introduced as a main factor of heart disease and the riskof heart disease has been estimated as two times more in the people who have no activity. Regular physical activity, as an important factor improving health, prevents or postpones various kinds of chronic disease and leads to early death. Further, there are various evidences indicating that regular physical activities leads to mental health improvement, depression and stress signs reduction, life satisfaction, and life quality improvement. The purpose of the present paper is to investigate macro and micro factors affecting sport participation conducted as a case study in Tehran city. Keywords:Participation, sport, education, age, leisure. IntroductionAs the world health organization (WHO) reported, Iranian national reviews` results indicate that the prevalence of inactivity in rural and urban areas with a focus on doing physical activities in leisure times is 76/3% and 58/8% among men and women of 15-64 years old, respectively. In this regards, the research findings have shown barriers individual face as one of the deterministic factors in physical activity, while the abilities of overcoming these barriers have a positive significant relation with increasing physical activities. Further, physical activity has a direct relation with the appropriate place to do exercises, equipment and providing the ease of going to the exercise place. Advocating and financial supporting on behalf of people increases social, cultural and economic value of this phenomenon. Exercise makes individuals happy and energetic. Happy is referred to as developing the spirit of participation, contribution and appreciation as well as a mixture of simplicity and contribution in activity environments affecting citizens positively. The background of sport has experienced tragic stories showing the impression of the neglects and indicating that they have nothing to do with the exercise functions. Exercise has a strong association with the complex of social institutes and structures. That is, the exercise achievements can be considered as a general index. Social and cultural status of a society can be judged through exercise, i.e. the exercise development depends on social factors governing on the society. Based on the research done by Dr Auliffin Oregon health and Science University of America, memory and reaction time of the elders who had an exercise program including fast walking on treadmill, 3 times a week and 1 hour each session during 4 months was improved. More studies have indicated that slow running, demonstration, biking, and dancing can also accelerate elders’ memory and reactions improvement. Researchers also found out that the elders participating in a regular exercise program outperformed in implementing memory tests. Although such memory improvement is seen in the elders participating in aerobic exercises, the studies have shown that there is no priority among the exercises to improve the memory. In other words, there is no significant difference between sport exercises in terms of improving the memory. As a result, regular exercise increase blood circulation in the brain leading to supply of Oxygen and nourishing neurons and preventing narrowing brain`s arteries. These effects can prevent mental disease in the elders. Sport and exercises also cause to release a kind of growth factor namely B.D.N.F reinforcing neurons against hurt and damage and preventing incidence of Alzheimer and Parkinson disease to some extent. Many researchers believe that physical activities lead to happiness and vitality and increase physical self-concept since depressed people either have no or little self-confidence. Physical activity raises internal satisfaction; also it has a significant effect in many diseases such as depression. Exercising 30 minutes each day can reduce the signs of depression as much as some mental-therapeutic methods and anti-depressant drugs. As internet site of Texas University`s medical center reported, psychiatrists have revealed that 30 minutes exercising in a day can minimize the depression symptoms as much as common medical methods and anti Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 139 depressant drugs but all of these depend on social supports of each country for the individuals. Considering the lack of focal policies of the governments, local organizations in many municipalities have adopted some policies to increase sport individual participation during the recent years. Municipalities believe that sport infrastructures are very important and municipality cannot change individual factors such as gender and residents` dispersal. In fact, municipalities can only provide appropriate sport infrastructure to improve sport participation. In the present paper, the theoretical framework proposed in the article of Wicker (2012) has been used as the theoretical framework of the study. Based on the applied framework, sport participation is influenced by internal and external factors. Internal factors or micro factors focus on the factors associating with individual such as available time, income, ethinicity, gender, and so forth while external or macro factors emphasize on the sport spaces, parks, number of gyms, municipalities programs, and so forth. According to the research done by Furlong, Campbell and Roberts (1990), economic and social statuses affect directly and indirectly the youth interest to participate in sports. Low price of sport and recreational facilities, as an economic factor, can affect the amount of their participation.Regarding the relation between equipment and participation to spend free time, Ziaii and Mansouri also stated that in summer, students have not the opportunity to make the best use of their free time due to the lack of sport and recreational facilities. Rural youth and girls have less sport-recreational spaces and camps leading to tend to unhealthy entertainments and activities due to these shortages. Main body: The conceptual model of the research: Considering the dependent and independent variables, the model used in the research can be depicted as in the figure-1. Methodology The present study investigates macro and micro factors affecting sport participation conducted as a case study in Tehran city in 2012. Based on the last census of 2012, the population of Tehran is 8,244,533 that is considered the most populated city of Iran and the seventh big city of the world. The population of Tehran has been estimated between 1700 to 1100 people each kilometer and it is the sixteenth dense city of the world. Figure-1 Conceptual model of the research Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 140 Football is the first and most popular sport in the city. Additionally, wrestling has been highly considered and is the traditional and national sport of Iran. There are 140 state sport places in Tehran. During the research, the data related to macro and micro factors have been collected. Then, the required data has been gathered from the statistical population using designed questionnaires10. Statistical population and sample: Considering the fact that statistical population includes a group of individuals, objects, variables, concepts, or phenomena which are common in one feature at least and the purpose of the present study has investigated the effect of micro and macro factors in sport participation of Tehran`s citizens, all the people who lived in Tehran during the study time are considered the population of the study11. With respect to the dependent variable (sport participation) and the need of continuous participation of individuals in the plan, all age ranges cannot be interviewed. In this regards, men and women of 15-65 years old have taken into the investigation due to avoiding the other inappropriate age ranges. Sample volume estimation and sampling method: Considering the research limitations such as lack of enough human force, time, and financial costs, it is not possible to study al the statistical population. Therefore, a small part of the population is selected from the population presenting all the population and is called sample. The sample should present the statistical population; otherwise, the results obtained from the sample cannot be generalized to the population12. \n \r\n \n \r  According to the above formula, d is the sampling error, z is the normal variable of unit corresponding to the confidence level of 1 – , P is the estimation of the considered attribute proportion, and q equals with 1 – P. in such researches, P value will be considered 0/5 if it is not determined. In the present study, P equals with 0/5, the sampling error is 5% and the sample size is approximately 384 13. In the present study, stratified random sampling method was used to select the sample due to heterogeneity of individuals in the population. In this method, the population individuals were classified into different categories regarding their inter-group features where the sample individuals were selected from all the categories proportionally. In the present paper, the population was divided into several categories based on some distinctive features such as age, gender and residential region,and then the table of the population`s real distribution, the percentage proportion of each categories was estimated in the whole population and real population was determined with respect to each category`s proportion. Afterwards, the number of the sample was selected from all the people of the same category using simple random sampling method14. Considering the above mentioned, the research sample was determined based on Morgan`s table for determining sample size so that the minimum size of the sample is 384 people. Computing the return rate of 90%, 425 questionnaires were distributed among the Citizens who has weekly sport program and of the considered age range to achieve the desired data. The questionnaires were distributed in the considered sport places among the sample randomly15. To investigate the significant difference between sport participation in various regions as well as the significant difference between sport participation based on each index, variance analysis test (ANOVA) was used. Notably, all the analyses were done at the confidence level of 95% using SPSS software. Results and Discussion The proposed model is a multi-layer theoretical model of sport participation (figure-1) based on economic performance theory investigating the applicability of economic options in non-market spaces of domestic productions theory. According to the theory, in producing and consuming domestic goods such as sport products, market goods, time allocation, and human capitals, individuals should be considered to making decision to participate in sport activities16. The model includes individual factors divided into economic factors of family (income, time and capital) and the factors based on demand (age, gender, immigration). The macro factors involve sport programs and facilities. The economic factors of family refer to family theory of Becker. Income is a financial limitation influencing sport participation since sport activity is costly. Reviewing the literature has indicated a positive effect of income in sport participation17. The hypothesis of the positive effect of income in sport participation has been investigated in the present study. In addition to income, economic conditions of an individual also have been determined with respect to enough available time. As a result, money and time provide the opportunity for individuals` physical activity. Time framework is a vital factor in sport participation. Time framework can be limited to working hour and the time of taking and fetching children to/from school and taking care of family18. As the earlier works reported, sport participation can be increased by increasing and decreasing working hour, decreasing the time of taking and fetching children to/from school and taking care of family. In the present study, it has been supposed that working hour and the time of taking children to school and taking care of family have a negative effect in sport participation. Moreover, economic status is determined by a third factor namely human capital. Usually, highly educated people have more physical activities since they are well informed from the positive effects of sport as it has been proved by many studies. Further, ethnicity can affect sport Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 141 participation since the importance and acceptance of physical activity can be different based on cultural backgroundof each society19. It is supposed that relocation background affects sport participation negatively. Also, age can be effective in this trend since social evaluation of sport participation can be variable among men and women20. The effect of age on men performance has been investigated in the present study. Additionally, sport participation may be influenced by macro factors. The macro level or infrastructures of sport refer to sport programs and facilities. According to the studies, high demand for all kinds of sport infrastructures affects sport participation positively. Therefore, the null hypothesis indicates that wide demand for sport programs and facilities affects sport participation of Tehran citizens positively21. Here, descriptive statistics and the tables of the sample`s features have been presented. Recognizing the sample`s features is useful to investigate general characteristics of the population to be used by other researchers. Additionally, they can be used in generalizing the results to other populations22. Table-1 Frequency distribution based on genderVariables Categories Frequency Frequency Percentage Valid Percentage Mode Man 223 52/5% 52/5% 1 Woman 202 47/5% 47/5% Total 425 100% 100% According to table 1, 52/5% of the sample includes men and 47/5% of the sample includes women. Also, the value of mode is 1 indicating that the most frequency is for men. In other words, mode is a central index determining the most frequency in a distribution and here, male gender has the most frequency. Table-2 Frequency distribution based on doing weekly physical activity in hour Variables categories Frequency Frequency percentage Valid percentage Mode Less than 1 hour 221 52% 52% 1 Between 1 to 2 hours 108 25/4% 25/4% Between 2 to 3 hours 51 12% 12% More than 3 hours 45 10/6% 10/6% Total 425 100% 100% Figure-1 The percentage of doing weekly physical activity (in hour) According to table 2, 52% of the sample does physical activity less than 1 hour, 25/4% of the sample does between 1 to 2 hours, and 10/6% dose more than 3 hours in a week. The value of mode is 1 indicating that the average of weekly sport exercise in Tehran`s citizens is less than 1 hour. The First Hypothesis: “There is a significant relation between education level and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens”. : There is no significant relationship between education level and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. : There is a significant relationship between education level and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The first hypothesis investigates the relation between education level and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens using non-parametric test of Kruskal Wallis due to the variable measurement level and multi-categorical variable. Table-3 Descriptive statistics Variable Number Mean Standard Deviation Sport participation 425 1/81 1/015 Education level 425 3/42 1/87 According to table-3, the mean value of education level is 3/24 which is more than the mean value of sport participation (1/87). Table-4 Values Ranking Variable Number Mean ranks Sport participation Below diploma 18 216/56 Diploma 109 200/87 Associates 49 41/231 Bachelor 181 85/214 Master 60 217/22 Doctrine 8 184 Total 425 Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 142 Table-4 presents the categories of education level variable in Tehran`s citizens based on ranked sport participation, number and mean of the ranks. As the table shows, bachelor grade has the greatest mean. Table-5 Relation estimation Estimation !  computed value 3/257 Degree of freedom 5 P-Value 0/660 Considering the value of Kruskal Wallis statistic and the observed error level (P-Value �0/05), it is concluded that the relation is not significant. In other words, there is no significant relationship between education and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. So, the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected. The second hypothesis: “There is a significant relation between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens”. : There is no significant relation between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. : There is a significant relation between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The second hypothesis investigates the relation between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens using non-parametric test of Kruskal Wallis due to the variable measurement level and multi-categorical variable. Table-6 Descriptive Statistics Variable Number Mean Standard deviation Sport participation 425 1/81 1/015 Age 425 2/56 0/931 According to table 6, the mean value of age is reported equal to 2/56 which is more than the mean value of sport participation (1/87). Table-7 Values Ranking Variable Number Mean ranks Sport participation 15 to 25 61 223/50 26 to 35 166 238/04 36 to 45 125 182/79 46 to 55 44 174/31 Above 56 29 236/50 Total 425 Table-7 presents the categories of education level variable in Tehran`s citizens based on ranked sport participation, number and mean of the ranks. As the table shows, the age range of 26-35 has the greatest mean. Table-8 Relation estimation Estimation !  computed value 24/207 Degree of freedom 4 P-Value 0/000 Considering the value of Kruskal Wallis statistic and the observed error level (P-Value �0/05), it is concluded that the relation is significant at the confidence level of 99%. In other words, there is a significant relationship between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. So, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. The third hypothesis: “There is a significant relationship between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens”. : There is no significant relationship between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. : There is a significant relation between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The third hypothesis investigates the relation between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens using Chi-Square test. Table-9 Counting Row Sport Participation Gender Male Female Total 1 Less than 1 hour 101 120 221 2 1 to 2 hours 71 37 108 3 2 to 3 hours 17 34 51 4 More than 3 hours 34 11 45 5 Total 223 202 425 Table-10 value estimation and determining the significance level of the relationRow " # value Degree of freedom P-Value 1 5/178 3 0/147 Considering the value of value, degree of freedom of the variable and the observed error level (P-Value �0/05), it is concluded that the relation is not significant. In other words, there is no significant relationship between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens since value is less than critical value and the observed error value (alpha error) is greater than 0/05. So, the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected. The fourth hypothesis: “There is a significant relation between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens”. : There is no significant relation between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. : There is a significant relation between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The fourth hypothesis investigates the relation between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens using Chi-Square test. Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 143 Table-11 Counting Sport participation Gender Row Has Has not Total 1 Less than 1 hour 61 160 221 2 1 to 2 hours 37 71 108 3 2 to 3 hours 13 38 51 4 More than 3 hours 12 33 45 5 Total 123 302 425 Table-12 value estimation and determining the significance level of the relationRow " # value Degree of freedom P-Value 1 2/087 3 0/555 Considering the value of value, degree of freedom of the variable and the observed error level (P-Value � 0/05), it is concluded that the relation is not significant. In other words, there is no significant relationship between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens since value is less than critical value and the observed error value (alpha error) is greater than 0/05. So, the null hypothesis is accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected. The fifth hypothesis: “There is a significant relation between sport facilities and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens”. : There is no significant relation between sport facilities and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. : There is a significant relation between sport facilities and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The fourth hypothesis investigates the relation between sport facilities and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens using one-way variance analysis test (F test). To this end, the condition of variances equality should be established. Table-13 Leven test (the condition f variances equality) Row Leven test value The first degree of freedom The second degree of freedom Sig 1 16/368 4 420 0/000 As table 13 shows, the condition of variances equality is established at the confidence level of 99% and the variance analysis is allowed to be used. According to table-14, considering the values of F statistic and the observed error level (P-Value 0/005), it can be concluded that the relationship is significant at the confidence level of 99%. In other words, there is a significant relation between sport facilities and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. So, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Also, the diagram of sport participation of Tehran`s citizens based on sport facilities ban be presented as in the figure-2. Figure-2 Sport Participation of Tehran`s citizens based on sport facilities The sixth hypothesis: “There is a significant relation between sport programs (non-profit making gyms, trade gyms and municipality) and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens”. : There is no significant relation between sport and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. : There is a significant relation between sport programs and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The sixth hypothesis investigates the relation between sport programs and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens using one-way variance analysis test (F test). To this end, the condition of variances equality should be established. Table-14 Variance Analysis Variation resources Sum of squares Degree of freedom mean of squares F statistic P-Value Inter-group 17/359 4 42/840 67/748 0/000 Intra-group 265/582 420 0/632 Total 436/941 424 Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 144 Table-15 Leven test (the condition f variances equality) Row Leven test value The first degree of freedom The second degree of freedom Sig 1 7/989 4 420 0/000 As table 15 shows, the condition of variances equality is established at the confidence level of 99% and the variance analysis is allowed to be used. According to table 16, considering the values of F statistic and the observed error level (P-Value 0/005), it can be concluded that the relation is significant at the confidence level of 99%. In other words, there is a significant relation between sport programs and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. So, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. Also, the diagram of sport participation of Tehran`s citizens based on sport programs ban be presented as in the figure-3. Figure-3 Sport Participation of Tehran`s citizens based on sport programs Conclusion As mentioned earlier, regular and continuous sport and physical activity is followed by useful effects in individuals` mind and spirit. Also, participating in sport activities and exercises has a lot of socially considerable effects including helping individuals to be socialized and adjusted with the environment; helping the individual to complete appropriate characteristic, filling leisure and avoiding social deviations; specifically in youth; modifying completing appropriate ethics; and providing individual to observe others rights; helping individuals in the process of culture building; having appropriate culture, and so forth. In addition to all above mentioned consequences, continuous physical activities cause to prevent many diseases such as depression, anxiety, stress, and Alzheimer.The results obtained from the investigation can be stated as the follows: There is no significant relation between education and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens, so the third hypothesis is rejected. There is no significant relation between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens, so this hypothesis is also rejected. There is no significant relation between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. There is no significant relation between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens and the amount of sport participation is the same among men and women. There is a significant relation between sport facilities and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. There is no significant relation between sport programs (trade gyms, non-profit making and municipality) and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens. The first hypothesis investigating the relation between education and sport participation in Tehran citizens indicated that the greatest mean of the grades pertained to bachelor degree. After testing the hypothesis, it was revealed that there is no relation between education and sport participation in Tehran citizens and the hypothesis was rejected. The result of testing the first hypothesis is inconsistent with the research done by Breuer. Breuer believes that education level of individuals affect their sport participation. Also, Mpofo asserts that individuals with higher education have fewer barriers relative to individuals with lower educations. Haji Nia and Farid Nia based on their study, states that education level is correlated with sport participation23. Ramezani Nejad et al. also believe that individuals with lower education have more motivation relative to individuals with higher education which is inconsistent with Atkinson and Rassel`s findings indicating that individuals with higher income and better job participate in sports exercises more24. Considering the inconsistencies in the different findings, it seems that this hypothesis should be investigated more accurately. Table-16 Variance Analysis Variation resources Sum of squares Degree of freedom mean of squares F statistic P-Value Inter-group 61/053 4 15/263 17/054 0/000 Intra-group 375/888 420 0/895 Total 436/941 424 Research Journal of Recent Sciences _____________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 3(12), 138-146, December (2014) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 145 Examining the relation between age and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens revealed that there is no significant relation between age and sport participation and the greatest mean pertained to the age range of 26 to 35 years old. According to the similar studies done by Ramezani et al. (2009), middle aged individuals participate in sport exercises more than youth and elders indicating that youth have not the necessary motivation to participate in physical activities and elders are not so able to participate in these activities. Gratton and Taylor based on their study indicates that younger people are more active than elders. Mpofo also asserts that people with the age of over 46 years participate in sport and recreation activities less than the youth25. Considering the comparison of the present study`s results with the previous findings, it can be concluded that people in any age range can participate in sport activities and there is no direct relation between age and sport participation26. The second hypothesis investigated the relation between gender and sport participation in Tehran citizens. Testing the hypothesis revealed that there is no relation between gender and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens27,28. While the results of Ramezani Nejad et al. indicate that men participate in physical activities more than women, low participation of omen can be considered due to their responsibilities in family and cultural barriers. Wicker et al. evaluate this fact and conclude that men`s sport participation is more than women24, 29. But Mpofo concludes that men face more barriers to participate in sport activities. Blair et al, based on their study, assert that gender is one of the demographic factors highly affecting sport participation. Although many sport are considered manly due to men`s attitude towards them, women have significantly attempted to participate in manly sport areas30. Based on the study done by Lahsaii Zade et al., there is a significant relation between gender and sport interest. In fact, women are more interested in sport. Ehsani et al., Mehdi Pour and Atiqe Chi studying the deterrent factor in sport participation reveals that relative to men, women face more barriers to participate in sport activities including not having a partner to participate in sport activities, family commitments, lack of enough information, shyness, lack of vehicle, physical disability, and so forth. Based on ranking done by Tondnevis, sport is placed in the third rank for boys and in the ninth rank for girls regarding free time spent indicating that 15% of girls and 31% of boys do not exercise at all. Considering the results obtained from the present study, the amount of sport participation is similar among men and women and they do physical activity in the same extent31-34. Investigating the relation between immigration background and sport participation in Tehran`s citizens revealed that there is no significant relation between immigration background and sport participation. 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