Research Journal of Recent Sciences _________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502 Vol. 2(11), 90-98, November (2013) Res.J.Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 90 Review Paper Stress and Burnout in the Higher Education Sector in Pakistan: A Systematic Review of LiteratureRosman Md. Yusoff1 and Faisal Khan2*Faculty of Management, Universiti Teknologi, (UTM), MALAYSIA Faculty of Management (FM), Universiti Teknologi, (UTM), MALAYSIA Available online at: www.isca.in , www.isca.me Received 23rd April 2013, revised 19th May 2013, accepted 26th June 2013Abstract The paper explores stress and burnout in higher education sector of Pakistan. It explores the historical neglect poverty and socio-political marginalization, complemented by natural disasters and anti-terrorist military operations. These are causes for less development in the sector. Additional to them, internal job related factors add to cause stress and burnout. The paper conducted a systematic literature review including papers from 8 journals and 6 books in 4 electronic databases. It concludes that teachers and administrators should know about job stress, burnout, stressors and coping mechanisms and produce policies for making the working environment congenial. Keywords: Stress, stress management, burnout, performance, higher education, turnover. Introduction The word stress is derived from Latin word Stringere which means ‘to draw tight’. French writers use the word distress which means ‘place under authority’. Hartig and his colleagues defined that a process in response to imbalance in demands and resources. It is defined as the force exerted on a person that causes tension, It is defined as demand which creates threats to acquire changes4,5. Job stress results from job demands, absence in decision making process and social problems6,7. Job stress implicates for organizational functions and quality of work-life, from two perspectives; employee perspective that relates to psychological wellbeing and organizational perspective, associated with shared behaviors. Job stress forecasts job satisfaction, leads to dissatisfaction8,5and inversely related to performance that is negatively affected by stressful situations9,10 it is also effected on workload as low or high11 and causes health hazards resulting in absenteeism, low productivity, dissatisfaction and turnover12,13. Burnout is a specific form of chronic stress, visible as emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced sense of personal accomplishment14-16 and one of the main outcome of Job stress due to its exponential impact on profession17. It is less convincing to limit burnout to human services only as it equally relates to family factors18. Its outcomes are same throughout in all occupations and are known as exhaustion and avoiding emotional involvement19. Job stress in academia is due to imbalance between job demands and their ability to respond. Academic staff involved in research and teaching may give rise to a conflicting situation as both need energy and concentration. The symptoms found among lecturers are tiredness, sleeping problem and concentration. These are more visible when more workload is expected to attract external research funds20. Teachers are more pressurized to impress their seniors, meeting targets set by administration and attendingdifferent meetings. Overwork, insecurity in jobs, poor communication, and organizational conflicts give rise to burnout (Emotional Exhaustion) and stress21-26. Job stress attributes to certain factors in Pakistani higher education sector (PHES), e.g. inequitable distribution of rights and duties, no clear rewards policy and mostly ill-articulated but no written code of conduct. Lacks of training and proper counseling add to severity of job stress as employees fail to cope with untoward situations27,28. American teachers (63%) view students’ departmental problems as stressor29. Origins of teachers’ stress are from emotional outbursts, and derogatory students’ remarks resulting as a consequence of overall academic environment30. Parents have high expectations from teachers and attribute low individual performance to them. They assume teachers as answerable for everything, which may become a stressor. Interference of parents in student teacher relation may aggravate situations to a level that may causes burnout31. Low student’s engagement during teaching hours can be a cause of student’s attitudinal problems32. Serious concerns are unscientific faculty regulations, management style along with lack of administrative support33. Favoritism is another stressor which affects wellbeing and performance34. Lack of administrative support causes stress, burnout and leads to job switching35. Stress occurs teachers while they try to make themselves accountable during more meetings, paper work and more documentation. Performance assessment may also add to stress as such processes mostly are done over and above the classroom36. Developing countries are struggling as they have to equip their Research Journal of Recent Sciences ______________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 2(11), 90-98, November (2013) Res. J. Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 91 educational institutions with technologies and have more importantly to train their teachers to utilize those resources properly37, 38. Academia is under pressure due to heavy workload, job demands and publication efforts39. It is observed as strained due to policies, asking for high performance in teaching, research and pursuing studies. Innovation and creativity has its fallout related to stress when one of the objective is to save money or to attract and earn funds particularly in Asia40. Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan has recently subjected the appointments for higher positions based on research publications. Pakistani teachers are stressed due to high performance demands in the new competitive era of HEC41-43. PHES is governed by HEC and Ministry of Education since 2002. Earlier, University Grant Commission was established in 1974, after 27 years without any centralized body for PHES44,45. Achievements of HEC (table-1) in last decade are considerable but job stress and burnout is a negative residual. External factors prove a hurdle to ensure a stress-free environment in PHES, which is suffering from unemployment, injustice, uncontrolled population, terrorism and political instability. An environmental cause of depression also consists of traumatic events, stress and different childhood problems46. This situation has been further aggravated by war on terror and climatic catastrophes. The issue grew more intense when the GOP decided to conduct armed military operations. Five million people in KPK province were internally displaced, 40,000 citizens and military personal have died in this war causing a damage of more than USD 80 Billion. Hundreds of schools have been destroyed, depriving children from education. Importantly, girls are the most affected as militants specially target female educational institutions47-49. For more than twenty years, energy crisis has been pivotal to negative trend in the country’s economic growth. Failure to resolve the crisis mainly springs from imbalance in supply and demand, as the country produces less than it requires. Pakistan was hit by a major earthquake in 2005 which caused the loss of human lives and destruction of public and private properties including state departments, hospitals and educational institutions. The death toll was 73,000 while millions had been left homeless. The buildings had either been demolished completely or were left in ruins particularly educational ones50. In July 2010, Pakistan was hit by flash floods (FF), almost 15% populations was affected including nine million children, old age people and women, 1.6 million household damaged and 3 million people were homeless. Development expenditure was cut to restore the flood hit areas51,52. Energy crisis complemented by natural disasters and military operations causes relatively lower output and less development in HES, in later years of last decade. These are additional to internal factors which contribute in job stress and burnout. Most studies on JOB STRESS in academia are conducted in developed countries as compared to developing countries53. Job stress and burnout has been rarely focused in PHES. This paper focuses Job stress and burnout in PHES through investigation of prevailing factors. It discusses how stress relates to workplace resulting in job stress? How stress develops among teachers? How does it transform to burnout? And what are factors of burnout? Methodology SRL consists of 26 papers from 1991 to 2012. The author studied 47 journal articles of last thirty years, along with books, reports, thesis and governmental documents (GD) (table-2). Databases consulted include Taylor and Francis, Education Resources Information Center, Science Direct, Willy Online Library and Jstor. Percentages of sources are given in table 3 and 4. Table-1 HEC Achievements 2001-2011 Year HEC Recognized Universities Expenditure (Rs in Millions) Enrolment PhD Publications Public Private Total 2001-02 46 36 82 - 2,76,274 204 815 2002-03 57 46 103 7723.402 331745 276 948 2003-04 58 51 109 10273.09 423236 276 1038 2004-05 60 52 112 15935.68 457642 312 1306 2005-06 61 53 114 21384.29 521473 328 1759 2006-07 62 54 116 28741.68 640061 408 2475 2007-08 60 55 115 27926.95 741092 438 3639 2008-09 68 56 124 18415.93 803507 628 4171 2009-10 71 57 128 44000.00 935596 819 5489 2010-11 73 59 132 29500.00 11,05,307 826 7366 2011-12 74 61 135 - - 863 - Total - - - - - 5378 29006 Source: ESP (2008-11) Research Journal of Recent Sciences ______________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 2(11), 90-98, November (2013) Res. J. Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 92 Table-2 Sources Description S # Source Number of Items Percentage 1 Journal Articles 47 64 2 Conference Articles 4 5.5 3 Books Books 6 4 10 Book Sections 2 4 Reports 2 3 5 Electronic Articles 4 5.5 6 WebPages 3 4 7 Thesis 1 1.4 8 GD 7 9.6 Total 73 100.00 Table-3 HRD Related Sources Variable Type Name Frequency Database/Publisher Stress and Burnout Journals Work and stress 6 Taylor and Francis Journal of Organizational Behavior 1 Emerald Insight Journal of Managerial Psychology 2 Willey Inter-science Journal of Criminal Justice 2 Taylor and Francis Journal of Applied Psychology 2 Web of Science International Journal of SM, 2 Science Direct International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 2 Science Direct Recent Journal of Recent Sciences 2 Books, Book Sections and Electronic Books The Wisdom of the Body 1 Cannon and Walter Publisher New York Stress: A brief History 2 John Wiley and Sons Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual 2 Consulting Psychologists Press Burnout and worn-out: Concepts and data from a national survey 2005 1 Hallsten, Lennart Burnout as a developmental process: consideration of models. 1993 1 Taylor and Francis. GD Websites of HEC www.hec.gov.pk and Economic Survey of Pakistan www.ead.gov.pk www.hec.gov.pk www.ead.gov.pk Table-4 ‘Stress and Burnout’ Related Sources Variables Type Name Frequency Database Education Journals Teaching and teacher education 2 Science Direct SociologyofEducation 1 Emerald Insight Journal of Social Science 2 Willey Interscience Educational Research 2 Taylor and Francis British Journal of Educational Psychology 2 Web of Science Book Stress and teaching 1 Swick., Kevin J. Electronic Articles, Reports, Online Databases, WebPages and GD Assessment of emotional states and personality traits: Measuring psychological vital signs. 1 Oxford University Press. Teacher job satisfaction in developing countries 1 Garrett. R. M Faculty Stress at Higher Education: A study on Business Schools of Pakistan 1 Aqsa Akbar, Waheed Akhtar Research Journal of Recent Sciences ______________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 2(11), 90-98, November (2013) Res. J. Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 93 Topics related to Job stress, burnout and HES were generally searched and specifically in Pakistan with Google.com. Most cited 8 journals related to stress and burnout is mentioned in table-3, while 5 journals related to HES are mentioned in table 4. Similar methodology of SRL is adopted for stress management (SM)54 and burnout57. Papers selection include ‘stress and burnout’, narrowed to Job stress and burnout in PHES. Government websites were selected for updated facts and figures. The studies related to schools and the health sector were also included, since teaching is a common phenomenon in both the schools and universities, while health sector include thorough counseling of the patients, which can also be related as educating and teaching of the patients. All these fields demand good communication and emphatic skills. Banking was excluded because it deals with totally different customer interface and skills’ requirement. The paper include keywords based search from different databases e.g. Science Direct, Jstor, Emerald and Taylor and Francis. Keywords used are Stress, Burnout, stressors and Higher Education in Pakistan. Search was conducted out of 193 studies where 85 were excluded as 30 of them were related to schools and 20 to hospitals and 35 to banking. Among the other, 108 studies were selected included 37 related to burnout, 36 to stress, 11 to Pakistan and 4 to Government websites. However, only 47 were peer reviewed and relevant, among which 26 were coded by author name, year, keywords, methods and data sources (table-5). Table-5 Literature Summery S # Publication Author/ Year Keywords Research Design Country/ Organization Size 1 Azam et al., (2012) Disaster Management, Transformation, HR Coping Capacity Gaps SRL Pakistan 2 Raza (2012) Occupational Stress, Job satisfaction CSS Pakistan/500 3 Watts and Robertson (2011). Burnout, University, Teachers, students, support, Postgraduates SRL UK /85 4 Akbar and Akhtar (2011)Faculty Stress, Higher Education, Stress Coping Strategies, Workload CSS Pakistan/300 5 Bhatti et al., (2011) Job stress, Academician, Public sector Universities CSS Pakistan/400 6 Manzoor et al., (2011) Job Stress, Job Satisfaction, University faculty members. CSS Pakistan/155 7 Usman et al., (2011) Work stress, role conflict, Role Ambiguity, Stress and job satisfaction CSS Pakistan/160 8 Economic Survey of Pakistan. (2011) GD Pakistan 9 Ahmad (2011) GD Pakistan 10 Agbatogun (2010) Teachers, Technologies, SM, Educational Output CSS Nigeria/706 11 Klassen (2010) Collective efficacy, stress, teachers CSS Canada /951 12 Lee and Shin (2010) Job stress, Data mining, Response Surface Methodology 13 Chaplain (2008) Stress psychological distress, disruptive behavior CSS England 14 Martinussen et al., (2007) Job Satisfaction, Intention to quit, Organizational Commitment CSS Norway/223 15 World Bank (2007) Report Pakistan 16 Rasmussen and Jeppese (2006)Teams, psychological variables, employee participation, Job stress SRL 17 Jepson and Forrest (2006) Personal Achievement, Commitment, Gender, Experience, Job stress CSS 95 18 Shirom (2005) SRL USA 19 Kristensen et al., (2005)Copenhagen Burnout Inventory, exhaustion, fatigue, work environment CSS 1914 20 Bekker et al., (2005)Nurses, Gender, Emotional Exhaustion, Burnout, Absenteeism, CSS Netherlands/404 21 Lackritz (2004) Burnout; Academic, Teaching, Factors, Workload, Residual CSS 265 22 Zembylas and Papanastasiou (2004) Teachers, Job satisfaction, Cyprus CSS Cyprus/461 23 Winefield et al., (2003). Occupation stress, University Staff CSS Australia/178 24 Government of Pakistan. (2002) GD Pakistan 25 Gillespie et al., (2001) Stress, Academic Staff, University Staff CSS Australian /N=178 26 Byrne (1991) Gender, Age, Marital Status, Student Type CSS 642 Research Journal of Recent Sciences ______________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 2(11), 90-98, November (2013) Res. J. Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 94 Results and DiscussionThe paper analyzed journal papers with Cross Sectional Study (CSS) and SRL methods and came with following findings: Raza43 analyzed 500 university lecturers regarding Job stress and satisfaction in PHES. It found 4 major factors for Job stress as physical, environmental risk, psychological and general factors. Watts and Robertson55 studied 85 university staff regarding burnout in teachers and students support in HES of the UK. They found that Burnout is more existent in young staff, number of students effects teachers’ burnout and gender is more associated to depersonalization then to emotional exhaustion. Akbar and Akhtar56 studied faculty’s job stress in the education sector included a discussion on stress coping strategies and workload on a sample of 300 in Pakistan. The result shows that role conflict, workload and students issues are significant stress sources. The study shows that private sector is more stressful than public sector for teachers. Teenagers, female, and less qualified faculty are more stressed as compared to old male and highly qualified. Bhatti, Hashmi, Raza, Shaikh, and Shafiq41 studied 400 university faculty regarding job stress. In this study factors of occupational Stress have been studies which are workload pressure, role ambiguity, management role, performance pressure and relationship with others. The study shows that job stress and job satisfaction has significant negative relations and 70 percent of faculty members are not satisfied with salaries. Occupational stress has negative impact on health. Manzoor, Usman, Naseem, and Shafiq57 explored 155 universities lecturers regarding, job stress and job satisfaction Pakistan. It reveals that job is an essential part of life and dissatisfaction with it negatively affects quality of life. The findings of the study shows that only 13.5% employees are highly satisfied while only 2.5% suffer from high stress in job and majority of them are averagely satisfied from their jobs. Usman, Ahmed, Ahmed and Akhtar58 studied 160 university lecturers regarding work stress, role conflict, role ambiguity, stress and job satisfaction in the educational sector of Pakistan. The result shows that there is positive and important relationship between the role stress such as role ambiguity, role conflicts and work stress in university faculty is negatively related to organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Agbatogun59 studied 706 teachers regarding the role of technologies for SM in the educational sector of Nigeria. The study is based on use of technologies for primary school teachers. The study shows that use of information and technologies minimizes stress by reducing workload and thus positively affects the mental health of teachers and also the quality of education. Klassen60 examined 951 teachers regarding Collective efficacy, stress and teachers in an educational study of Canada. The study examined the structure of teacher collective efficacy (TCE), occupational stress and job satisfaction and secondly examined how TCE affects mediate in job satisfaction and occupational stress. Female teachers have more stress from student misbehavior and workload. Lee and Shin conducted study regarding Job stress, Data mining and Response surface methodology in the industrial study. To them, in order to improve the level of satisfaction of industrial workers it is important to analyze the causes of occupational stress. The methodology, used is analysis of the causes of occupational stress which are psychosocial, environmental and physical setting with in industry. Chaplain61 studied stress, psychological distress, and disruptive behavior, in the educational study of England. The study examined the relation between teacher stress and mental health. There are three major variables identified i.e. lack of support, workload and behavioral management. Gender differences were also identified. According to Martinussen, et al.,17 there is no gender difference in burnout but only age is related to exhaustion because in older age emotional exhaustion is high. Burnout is not high among police as compared to other occupational organizations. Family pressure is an important factor for all of three syndromes of burnout. This is a study on 223 police officers regarding Job Satisfaction, Intention to quit, and Organizational Commitment in criminal department of Norway. Rasmussen and Jeppesen54 conducted SRL on teams, teamwork, psychological variables, employee participation, autonomy, and work-related stress. The study shows that psychological factors have positive relation with team authority and interdependence and also shows the strong relationships between psychological factors and teamwork. Jepson and Forrest27 conducted a Cross Sectional study on 95 teachers regarding Type A behavior, personal achievement strivings, Occupational commitment, gender and nature/experience of teaching on perceived workplace stress in the educational sector. The study results show from multiple regressions that there is positive relation in perceived stress, Type-A behavior and personal achievement while perceived stress have negative relations with occupational commitment. Shirom62 conducted SRL and revealed that burnout is the outcome of stress common in developed countries. It is generic but it has been produced due to working environment and some family issues. Kristensen, et al.,15 conducted CSS on education sector with a sample size of 1914, regarding burnout and developed an inventory called “Copenhagen Burnout Inventory”, including Research Journal of Recent Sciences ______________________________________________________________ ISSN 2277-2502Vol. 2(11), 90-98, November (2013) Res. J. Recent Sci. International Science Congress Association 95 exhaustion, fatigue, human service work, psychosocial work environment, PUMA study, questionnaire validity. The study discussed Maslach burnout Inventory (MBI) to find burnout. This method consists of three important scales which are used in different domains that is, Client related burnout, personal burnout and work related burnout. The reliability and validity of the CBI was analyzed by PUMA (Project on Burnout, Motivation and Job satisfaction) whose results are satisfactory. Bekker, et al.,18 and Lackritz63 studied 404 nurses and 265 university staff inNetherlands, highlighted healthcare, childcare, nurses, gender, gender differences, emotional exhaustion, burnout, absenteeism, sickness absence, work attitudes, and Job Characteristics. They show gender differences for burnout and sickness absence. Factors investigating gender role are work attitude, childcare obligations and job characteristics. Emotional exhaustion and sickness absence are more in female nurses. Non-work attitude is also positively related to sickness absence. Age is negatively correlated to the emotional exhaustion but not significant difference with race. Zembylas and Papanastasiou64 studied 461 teachers regarding teachers and job satisfaction in the educational sector of Cyprus. The study wants to motivate people towards the teaching profession. At first 63.3% respondents have chosen teaching but after some time 70% have changed. Winefield, Gillespie, Stough, Hapuarachchi, and Boyd20 studied 178 faculty members from 15 Australian universities and conducted 22 focus groups regarding job stress. They found higher stress in academic staff then general staff. Majority of staff said that job stress have adverse impact on their personal and professional life. Stressors included insufficient funding, overload, poor management, job insecurity, insufficient recognition and reward. The coping mechanisms included positive work environment and personal coping strategies. Gillespie, et al.,65 conducted a CSS on Job stress of 178 Australian university staff. The study shows that academic staffs have more stress than general. The significant sources found were work overload, job insecurity, less resources, poor management and recognitions and rewards. Stress also had impact on the personal welfare and work. Byrne66 conducted a CSS on a sample of 642. The paper discussed gender, age, marital/family status and type of student taught. The study shows that postgraduates are significant of personal accomplishment. Age is important in emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment. Male and female difference have significant effects on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization to produce stress in the educational institutions, organizational factors are more significant in every level of academic system. Conclusion The paper concludes that stressors includes homework interface, administration role, relationship with others, role ambiguity, performance pressure and workload41,57 students related problems and role conflicts56 low Salaries, unavailability of physical resources, academic problems, inexperienced teachers41self efficiency, job performance, number of students in class, marital status and experience67, ambiguity of job outcomes e.g. organizational commitment and job performance58. It provides relationship between different stressors and their outcomes like turnover and decreased organizational commitment. The paper serves as a guide for future researchers to analyze the decreasing trend in teacher performance and their vulnerability to job stress. Technological advances have considerably added to the efficiency of teachers and have lessened their burden thus a huge support to avoid stressful situations21, 68. 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