Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
______________________________
___
_ 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
 
Res.
 
J.
 
Agriculture and Forestry 
Sci.
 
 
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
 
 
    
1
 
Comparative studies on the 
Effectiveness 
of 
Pesticides 
for 
Aphid 
control in 
Cowpea
 
 
Radha
 
R
.
 
Department of Zoology, PSGR Krishnammal College for Women, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, INDIA
 
 
Available online at: 
www.isca.in
 
Received
 
10
th
 
June
 
201
3
, revised
 
18
th
 
June 
201
3
, accepted
 
1
st
 
July 
201
3
 
 
 
 
Abstract 
 
Considering the importance of safe food globally and organic farming,
the effectiveness of two biopesticides (Neem seed 
kernel extract and spinosad) with a synthetic pesticide (ch
lorpyriphos)were evaluated against 
cowpea aphid, 
Aphis 
craccivora  
and its predator the ladybird beetle, 
Micraspis discolor 
(F.). The cowpea plant was sprayed with different 
pesticides when the aphid population reached at economic threshold level. 
Among th
e pesticides, Chlorpyriphos   proved 
highly effective against aphids  as compared to the rest of the pesticides. Furthermore, yield of cowpea was also higher in 
chlorpyriphos treatments.
 
Thus, it is concluded that all the studied insecticides proved effect
ive against the aphids but the 
toxicity studies of the insecticides was observed from maximum to minimum in the following order, C
hlorpyriphos
 
� 
Spinosad �Neem Seem Kernel Extract.  
 
 
Keywords:
 
Aphis
 
craccivora
,
 
Micraspis discolor
,
 
Neem seed kernel extract
, Spinosad and
 
Chlorpyriphos
.
 
 
Introduction
 
Aphids are an important group of insects with worldwide 
distribution. They are a truly interesting group of herbivorous 
insects and can affect plants directly or indirectly by feeding on 
the plant’s sap
1
. They 
have experienced some adaptations in 
relation to host plants so that many aphid taxa have biologically 
complex life cycles
2
.
 
Aphis craccivora 
Koch is associated with 
many host plants in the Leguminosae and also in many other 
plant families so that it attac
ks about 50 crops in 19 different 
plant families.
 
 
The cowpea aphid, 
Aphis craccivora 
(Koch)  (Aphididae : 
Homoptera) is a widely distributed species of insect prevalent 
throughout  India
3
. Aphids are economically important insects 
causing severe damage to
 
a number of crop plants. Both nymphs 
and adults suck plant sap and cause serious damage right from 
the seedling to pod bearing stage.  C
owpea aphids inject toxins 
into the plant while feeding; they most likely reduce mung bean 
vigour and yields
4
. 
Besides 
causing direct damage to the host by 
sucking the sap from various plant parts, they may lower the 
yield, quality and marketability of crops by transmitting plant 
viruses which result in early plant death and the production of 
an excess of honey dew
5
.
 
 
Aphi
ds are attacked by parasitoids, predators and pathogens. In 
some instances, both larvae and adults of predators belonging to 
the family Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles) feeds on aphids. 
With regards to parasitoids, some species will pupate within or 
below 
the aphid cuticle forming mummies
6
. Adult wasps will 
emerge from the mummies and are free living. All species in the 
braconid subfamily Aphidiinae develop as endoparasitoids 
(inside) of aphids with one larva completing development in 
each host. Some specie
s of entomopathogenic fungi infest 
aphids through the cuticle eventually killing the host.
 
 
Ladybirds 
are stronger, larger and usually more intelligent than the prey. A 
single predator may attack several hosts in a short period
7
.
 
 
The use of neem for contro
lling insect infestation has been 
known in rural communities in India for a long time. It is known 
to certain diverse array of biologically active principle of which 
Azadiractin
 
is one of the know derivatives
8
. It has antifeedent, 
antiovipositional, growth
 
disrupting and fecundity reducing 
properties of different insect and one suitable for inclusion in 
the IPM programmed
9
. Neem seeds contains only trace of 
Azaridactin
 
but compounds like salanin and meliantriel etc., are 
also present which useful in the con
trol of some insects. Neem 
products affect the metamophosis of insects their fecundity and 
have on antifeedent effect
10
. The latest research neem has 
brought out into focus it’s important in biological control of 
pests, nematodes and disease in agriculture
.
 
 
Spinosad is a biologically derived insecticide produced by the 
actinomycete 
Saccharopolyspora spinosa, 
a bacterial organism
 
isolated from soil. The mode of action of is that spinosad is a 
stomach and nerve poison. It act continuously on the motor 
neuron
s resulting in the paralysis of muscles and the insects dies 
from exhaustion. The advantage of using spinosad is that the 
feeding of aphids stops with in minutes and death occurs with
 
in 
48 hours
11
. Growers should wait a minimum of two to three 
days to eva
luate control. Spinosad is relatively fast active 
compared to that of neem extract.
 
 
C
hlorpyriphos 
is an organochlorine pesticide which penetrates 
the intact skin and it affects the central nervous system 
producing sudden irregular movement of the body cau
sed by 
Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
___
______________________________
______________
 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
          
 
          
Res. J. Agriculture and Forestry Sci.
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
2
 
involuntary contraction of muscle
12
. The advantage of using 
chlorpyriphos 
is that it is highly toxic to adult and the insect 
death occurs with in 24 hours. But the disadvantages are 
undiluted 
chlorpyriphos
 
is slowly and incompletely absorbed 
into th
e body. Stimulation of CNS is the major characteristic of 
chlorpyriphos 
poisoning resulting in vomiting, diarrhoea, 
convulsion and loss of consciousness
13
. Blindness has been 
documented for cows, sheep and pigs that grazed in the field 
sprayed with the com
pound.
 
 
Hence in the present study three different pesticides namely bio
-
pesticide( neem seed kernel extract), microbial 
pesticide(spinosad) and chemical pesticide(
chlorpyriphos
)are 
used  to study on the effect of toxicity, feeding and reproduction 
of  cow
pea aphid,
 
Aphis craccivora  
and its predator
 
the 
ladybird beetle
, 
Micraspis discolor 
(F.)
 
 
Material and Methods
 
Insect culture:
 
A stock culture of 
A. craccivora 
was maintained 
on cowpea, , 
Vigna unguiculata
 
under laboratory conditions of  
20.0±5.0 ºC and 
70.0±5.0 % R.H. and a photoperiod of 16 L: 8 
D for several generations. In all experiments, the insects were 
put on fresh cowpea plants cultivated in small pots  and 
enclosed individually in glass cylinders, the tops of which were 
covered with muslin held 
in place with rubber bands.
 
 
After settling down, the adult aphids were allowed to deposit 
their nymphs. The young first instar nymphs were removed 
from the culture colonies using a camel's hair brush and placed 
in separate cages. These young ones were cul
tured on different 
leaf stages of cowpea plant
.
 
The predator,
 
Micraspis discolor 
were collected and reared in wooden cages. They were allowed 
for mating. After reproduction, they newly emerged larva was 
introduced on 
Aphis craccivora  
 
reared on different 
stages of 
cowpea leaves.
 
 
Preparation of Neem Seed Kernel Extract
: 
The neem seed 
kernel
 
was washed and dried in shady place in the laboratory 
and  the dried seed kernel was ground into powder. The dried 
neem seed kernel powder was mixed with 200 ml of wate
r to 
prepare a stock solution. The required concentration ranging 
from 0.25
-
2.0 % was prepared using distilled water. 
 
 
Effect of Neem seed kernel extract on 
Aphis 
craccivora
: 
Cowpea leaves were dipped in   1
-
6 % test solution for 1 minute 
containing diffe
rent concentration, dried for 2 hours and allow 5 
Aphis craccivora 
to feed The leaf area consumed by the larvae 
is calculated. The number of larvae died in 24, 48 and 72 hours 
was calculated.
 
 
Effect of Spinosad  and C
hlorpyriphos 
on 
Aphis
 
craccivora
: 
Dire
ct Spray test
: 
Take 3 leaf disc were placed in each Petri 
dishes. Allow 15 to 20 
Aphis
 
craccivora were
 
placed on each 
disc. Spray different concentration test solution and dry for 1 
hour. Adult mortality and the number of eggs laid per female 
were recorded
.
 
Indirect Spray test
:  
The mature leaves of cowpea were dipped 
in test solution for 5 sec and   allow to dry for1 Hr. Allow 20 
Aphis
 
craccivora
  
to feed and adult mortality was calculated 
after 24 and 48 Hrs.
 
 
Result
s
 
and Discussion
 
Table
-
1shows the e
ffec
t of Neem Seed Kernel Extract on adult 
survival and emergence rate of  
Aphis craviccora.
 
 
T
T
h
h
e
e
 
 
p
p
r
r
e
e
s
s
e
e
n
n
t
t
 
 
s
s
t
t
u
u
d
d
y
y
 
 
s
s
h
h
o
o
w
w
s
s
 
 
t
t
h
h
a
a
t
t
 
 
h
h
igh concentration of Neem reduces the 
percentage of adult emergence. 
The reduction in aphid numbers 
on the neem
-
treated plants was due to
 
the the antifeedant effect 
of neem which led to starvation and death of the aphids. The 
major component of neem seed kernel, azadirachtin is the 
chemical responsible for its antifeedant properties
14
.
 
However, 
the effects of the treatment were not immediat
e, since the aphids 
were found actively moving on the leaves a few days after the 
application. Thus there was a delayed effect of neem on 
susceptible insects after application.
 
 
Table 2 and 3 shows the e
ffect of spinosad and 
chlorpyriphos.
 
on adult surviva
l and emergence rate of 
Aphis 
craccivora.
 
 
High 
concentration of 
chlorpyriphos
 
reduces the percentage of adult 
emergence when compared to that of neem extract and spinosad.
 
High concentration of Spinosad reduces the percentage of adult 
emergence.
 
Spinosad a
lso reduced the moulting of larvae or 
pupae to adult but it is less toxic than 
chlorpyriphos.
 
Spinosad is 
a microbial derived insecticide which activates the central 
nervous system of the aphids resulting in paralysis and death of 
Aphis craccivora.
 
High co
ncentration of 
chlorpyriphos 
reduces 
the percentage of adult emergence when compared to that of  
spinosad.
 
 
C
C
hlorpyriphos
 
show highest toxicity when compared 
to that of spinosad
.
 
 
Table 4 shows the s
urvival, longevity and reproduction of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
ad
ult exposed to cowpea leaves treated with neem 
seed kernel Extract.
 
 
Higher concentration of neem seed kernel 
extract reduced longevity of adults and average number of 
moults compared to that of the lower concentration.
 
The 
variable levels of control of aph
ids on cowpea indicate that the 
host plant influences the effectiveness of neem treatment.
 
 
Table 5 and 6 denotes the s
urvival, longevity and reproduction 
of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
adult exposed to cowpea leaves treated with 
chlorpyriphos 
and spinosad resp
ective
ly.  
Percentage of 
survival, longevity and reproduction of Aphis 
craccivora
 
adult 
is higher in spinosad treated leaves compared to that of neem 
seed kernel extract.  C
hlorpyriphos
 
show highest toxicity when 
compared to that of neem seed kernel extract and 
spinosad. 
 
 
Table 7 and 8 shows the mean number of eggs laid from female 
and adult mortality of 
Aphis craccivora 
treated with 
chlorpyriphos
 
and spinosad in direct spray and residual contact 
test.
 
 
In Direct spray method, the adult mortality of 
Aphis 
cracciv
ora
 
is highest in 
chlorpyriphos
 
treated leaves when 
compared to that of spinosad after 48 hrs. Thus the direct spray 
proved to be more effective than residual spray.
 
Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
___
______________________________
______________
 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
          
 
          
Res. J. Agriculture and Forestry Sci.
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
3
 
Table 9 and 10 shows the toxicity of different insecticides on 
adult 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
afte
r 12 hours and 24 hours.
 
 
A
A
m
m
o
o
n
n
g
g
 
the 
three insecticides, 
chlorpyriphos
 
showed highest toxicity on 
adult mortality after 24
 
hrs.
 
 
Table
-
1
 
  
Effect of Neem Seed Kernel extract on adult survival and emergence rate of  
Aphis craviccora
 
S.No.
 
Neem Seed Kernel 
Ex
tract
 
Treatment (%)
 
Percent Survival after Treatment
 
% Adult 
emergence
 
8 hours
 
24 hours
 
48hours
 
1.
 
Control
 
90.8 
a
 
79.2
a
 
32.5
a
 
85.5
a
 
2.
 
0.5
 
90.7 
ab
 
76.3
b
 
30.1
b
 
83.3
b
 
3.
 
1
 
90.1 
b
 
71.2
c
 
29.7
c
 
80.4
c
 
4.
 
2
 
86.2
c
 
69.3
d
 
29.3
cd
 
79.2
d
 
5.
 
4
 
83.1
d
 
68.1
e
 
28.7
d
 
77.7
e
 
6.
 
6
 
82.3
e
 
63.4
f
 
26.6
e
 
76.7
f
 
 
Table
-
2
 
Effect of Spinosad on adult survival and emergence rate of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
S.No.
 
Treatment (ppm)
 
Spinosad
 
Percent Survival after Treatment
 
% Adult 
emergence
 
8 hours
 
24hours
 
48hours
 
1.
 
Control
 
90.8
 
a
 
79.2
 
a
 
32.5
 
a
 
85.5
 
a
 
2.
 
0.5
 
86.6
 
b
 
73.0
 
b
 
30.4
 
b
 
80.1
 
b
 
3.
 
1
 
81.5
 
c
 
70.1
 
c
 
24.6
 
c
 
79.4
 
c
 
4.
 
1.5
 
79.2
 
d
 
66.7
 
d
 
20.1
 
d
 
76.1
 
d
 
5.
 
2
 
78.4
 
e
 
59.1
 
e
 
19.7
 
e
 
62.3
 
e
 
6.
 
2.5
 
76.3
 
f
 
54.2
 
f
 
12.6
 
f
 
50.2
 
f
 
 
Table
-
3
 
Effect of C
hlorpyriphos
 
on adult survival and emergen
ce rate of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
S.No.
 
Treatment
 
C
hlorpyriphos
 
Percent Survival after Treatment
 
% Adult 
emergence
 
8 hours
 
24hours
 
48hours
 
1.
 
Control
 
90.8
 
a
 
79.2
 
a
 
32.5
 
a
 
85.5
 
a
 
2.
 
0.5
 
84.3
 
b
 
76.4
 
b
 
29.4
 
b
 
76.1
 
b
 
3.
 
1
 
76.4
 
c
 
72.1
 
c
 
26.4
 
c
 
67.8
 
c
 
4.
 
1.5
 
6
4.8
 
d
 
60.1
 
d
 
16.7
 
d
 
54.4
 
d
 
5.
 
2
 
59.4
e
 
53.2
 
e
 
11.2
 
e
 
43.7
 
e
 
6.
 
2.5
 
56.4
 
f
 
43.2
 
f
 
10.4
 
f
 
30.1
 
f
 
 
Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
___
______________________________
______________
 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
          
 
          
Res. J. Agriculture and Forestry Sci.
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
4
 
Table
-
4
 
Survival, longevity and reproduction of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
adult exposed to cowpea leaves treated with Neem seed kernel 
Extract
 
 
Table
-
5
 
Survival, longevity and reproduction of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
adult  exposed to 
 
cowpea leaves treated with Spinosad
 
S.No.
 
Treatment 
(ppm)
 
Spinosad
 
% Survival after treatment
 
Longevity
 
(Days)
 
Avg No.of 
Molts
 
1 day
 
2 days
 
3days
 
4 days
 
1.
 
Control
 
100
a
 
100
a
 
97.5
a
 
95.0
a
 
6.7
a
 
2.9
a
 
2.
 
0.5
 
96.3
b
 
87.3
b
 
60.4
b
 
8.0
b
 
4.2
b
 
2.3
b
 
3.
 
1
 
92.4
c
 
82.6
c
 
41.3
c
 
5.0
c
 
2.6
c
 
1.7
c
 
4.
 
1.5
 
88.3
d
 
74.4
d
 
34.7
d
 
0.0
d
 
2.0
d
 
0.2
d
 
5.
 
2
 
86.1
e
 
69.7
e
 
10.6
e
 
0.0
d
 
1.8
e
 
0.2
d
 
6.
 
2.5
 
80.2
f
 
67.3
f
 
8.3
f
 
0.0
d
 
1.3
f
 
0.2
d
 
 
Table
-
6
 
Survival, longevity and reproduction of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
adults exposed to cowpea leaves treated with C
hlorpyriphos
 
S.No.
 
Treatment
 
C
hlorpyriphos
 
 
% Survival after tr
eatment
 
Longevity
 
(Days)
 
Avg No.of Molts
 
1 day
 
2 days
 
3 days
 
4 days
 
 
1.
 
Control
 
100
a
 
100
a
 
97.5
a
 
95.0
a
 
6.7
a
 
2.9
a
 
2.
 
0.5
 
83.4
b
 
64.3
b
 
34.6
b
 
9.6
b
 
5.3
b
 
1.7
b
 
3.
 
1
 
76.6
c
 
42.2
c
 
19.4
c
 
6.4b
c
 
2.4
c
 
1.3
bc
 
4.
 
1.5
 
74.7
d
 
36.4
d
 
12.6
c
 
0.0
c
 
1.7
d
 
0.1
c
 
5.
 
2
 
63.8
e
 
28.6
e
 
6.9
d
 
0.0
c
 
0.9
e
 
0.1
c
 
6.
 
2.5
 
65.4
f
 
20.1
f
 
6.4
de
 
0.0
c
 
0.9
e
 
0.1
c
 
 
S.No.
 
Treatment (%)
 
Neem
 
seed kernel 
Extract
 
% Survival after treatment
 
Longevity
 
(Days)
 
Avg No. of 
Molts
 
1 day
 
2 days
 
3 days
 
4 days
 
1.
 
Control
 
100
a
 
100
a
 
97.5
a
 
95.0
a
 
6.7
a
 
2.9
a
 
2.
 
0.5
 
97.9
b
 
89.0
b
 
76.3
b
 
10.1
b
 
5.7
b
 
2.7
ab
 
3.
 
1
 
94.2
c
 
86.7
c
 
53.4
c
 
0.7
c
 
5.3
c
 
2.3
ab
 
4.
 
2
 
90.3
d
 
82.
5
d
 
44.8
d
 
0.5
cd
 
4.2
d
 
2
ab
 
5.
 
4
 
88.4
e
 
79.3
e
 
26.7
e
 
0.3
cd
 
3.1
e
 
1.9
b
 
6.
 
6
 
86.7
f
 
76.1
f
 
13.1
f
 
0.1
cd
 
2.6
f
 
1.9
b
 
Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
___
______________________________
______________
 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
          
 
          
Res. J. Agriculture and Forestry Sci.
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
5
 
Table
-
7
 
Mean number of eggs laid from female and adult mortality of 
Aphis 
craccivora 
treated with Spinosad in direct spray and 
residual contact test
 
S.No
 
Conc.
 
Spinosad 
(ppm)
 
Mean eggs per Fe
male
 
Adult Mortality%
 
Direct
 
Residual
 
Direct
 
Residual
 
24 hours
 
48
 
hours
 
24
 
hours
 
48
 
hours
 
24 hours
 
48
 
hours
 
24 hours
 
48
 
hours
 
1.
 
Control
 
3.9
a
 
7.2
a
 
2.8
a
 
6.0
a
 
0
f
 
4
d
 
0
f
 
0
f
 
2.
 
0.5
 
3.5
ab
 
6.9
b
 
2.6
ab
 
5.7
ab
 
8
e
 
10
bc
 
5
e
 
2
e
 
3.
 
1
 
3.4
ab
 
6.4
bc
 
2.4
ab
 
4.3
c
 
10
d
 
12
b
 
7
d
 
5
d
 
4.
 
1.5
 
3.0
b
 
6.1
bc
 
2.3
ab
 
4.1
cd
 
15
c
 
9
c
 
10
c
 
7
c
 
5.
 
2
 
2.9
bc
 
5.7
c
 
1.4
c
 
3.2
d
 
18
b
 
10
bc
 
14
b
 
10
b
 
6.
 
2.5
 
2.6
bc
 
5.3
cd
 
1.2
cd
 
3.1
de
 
20
a
 
15
a
 
16
a
 
13
a
 
 
Table
-
8
 
Mean number of eggs laid from female and adult mortality of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
treated with ch
lorpyriph
os
 
in direct spray 
and residual contact test
 
S.No.
 
 
Conc.
 
Endosulfan 
(ppm)
 
Mean eggs per Female
 
Adult Mortality%
 
Direct
 
Residual
 
Direct
 
Residual
 
24 
hours
 
48
 
hours
 
24 
hours
 
48
 
hours
 
24 
hours
 
48
 
hours
 
24 
hours
 
48
 
hours
 
1.
 
Control
 
3.9
a
 
7.2
a
 
2.8
a
 
6.0
a
 
0
f
 
4
f
 
0
f
 
0
f
 
2.
 
0.5
 
3.1
b
 
6.5
b
 
2.4
ab
 
5.6
ab
 
10
e
 
15
e
 
8
e
 
6
e
 
3.
 
1
 
2.7
c
 
6.0
c
 
2.0
ab
 
4.0
b
 
14
d
 
18
c
 
10
d
 
8
d
 
4.
 
1.5
 
2.3
cd
 
5.8
cd
 
1.8
b
 
3.8
bc
 
16
c
 
20
b
 
12
c
 
10
c
 
5.
 
2
 
2.0
d
 
5.4
cd
 
1.6
bc
 
3.6
bc
 
20
b
 
16
d
 
15
b
 
12
b
 
6.
 
2.5
 
1.7
de
 
5.0
d
 
1.0
c
 
3.3
bc
 
25
a
 
21
a
 
18
a
 
14
a
 
 
Neem's efficacy to
 
non
-
target and beneficial organisms has been 
documented in previous and recent literature
15,16
. Many 
biologically active compounds can be extracted from neem, 
including triterpenoids, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, 
steroids, and ketones.  The tetranortr
iterpenoid azadirachtin has 
received the most attention as a pesticide because it is relatively 
abundant in neem kernels and has shown biological activity on a 
wide range of insects
17
. Azadirachtin is actually a mixture of 
seven isomeric compounds labeled 
as azadirachtin
-
A to 
azadirachtin
-
G with azadirachtin
-
A being present in the highest 
quantity and azadirachtin
-
E regarded as the most effective 
insectgrowth regulator. Many other compounds have been 
isolated that shows antifeedant activity as well as growt
h 
regulating activity on insects
18
.  This cocktail of compounds 
significantly reduces the chances of tolerance or resistance 
developing in any of the affected organisms.  However, only 
four of the compounds in neem have been shown to be highly 
effective in
 
their activity as pesticides: azadirachtin, salannin, 
meliantriol, and nimbin
19
.
 
 
Spinosad’s overall protective effect varies with pest species and 
life stage. Spinosad affects certain insect pests only in the adult 
stage, but can affect other pests at mo
re than one life stage. The 
pests that are subject to very high rates of mortality as larvae, 
but not as adults, may gradually be controlled through sustained 
larval mortality
20
.
 
The mode of action of spinosoid insecticides 
is by neural mechanism.
 
The spin
osyns and spinosoids have a 
novel mode of action, primarily targeting binding sites on 
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors  of the insect nervous system 
that are distinct from those at which other insecticides have their 
activity. Thus the present study reve
als that Spinosad has high 
efficacy, a broad insect pest spectrum, low mammalian toxicity, 
and a good environmental profile.
 
Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
___
______________________________
______________
 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
          
 
          
Res. J. Agriculture and Forestry Sci.
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
6
 
Table
-
9
 
 
Toxicity of different Insecticides on adult 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
after 12 hours
 
Insecticide
 
Treatment
 
(%)
 
No. 
o
f Aphid
 
Mortal
ity                                      
(%)
 
LC
50
 
LC
90
 
Used
 
Died
 
Neem Seed kernel 
Extract
 
0.5
 
20
 
5
d
 
25
d
 
2.086
 
5.134
 
1
 
20
 
7
c
 
35
c
 
2
 
20
 
9
b
 
45
b
 
4
 
20
 
11
a
 
80
a
 
Spinosad
 
0.5
 
20
 
6
d
 
30
d
 
0.339
 
-
0.788
 
1
 
20
 
8
c
 
40
c
 
2
 
20
 
11
b
 
55
b
 
2.5
 
20
 
12
a
 
8
9
a
 
C
hlorpyriphos
 
0.5
 
20
 
6
d
 
30
d
 
0.374
 
-
0.663
 
1
 
20
 
8
c
 
40
c
 
2
 
20
 
12
b
 
60
b
 
2.5
 
20
 
15
a
 
92
a
 
Control
 
-
 
20
 
1
 
5.0
 
-
 
-
 
 
Table
-
10
 
                        
Toxicity of different Insecticides on adult 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
after 24 hours
 
Insecticide
 
Treatment
 
(%)
 
No. 
o
f Aphid
 
Mortality (%)
 
LC
50
 
LC
90
 
Used
 
Died
 
Neem seed kernel Extract
 
0.5
 
20
 
5
d
 
25
d
 
1.856
 
1.52
 
1
 
20
 
8
c
 
40
c
 
2
 
20
 
11
b
 
55
b
 
4
 
20
 
14
a
 
79
a
 
Spinosad
 
0.5
 
20
 
8
d
 
40
d
 
0.497
 
-
0.457
 
1
 
20
 
11
c
 
53
c
 
2
 
20
 
14
b
 
70
b
 
2.5
 
20
 
16
a
 
86
a
 
C
hlorpy
riphos
 
0.5
 
20
 
11
d
 
55
d
 
0.815
 
-
0.357
 
1
 
20
 
13
c
 
65
c
 
2
 
20
 
15
b
 
75
b
 
2.5
 
20
 
17
a
 
95
a
 
Control
 
-
 
20
 
1
 
5.0
 
-
 
-
 
 
Research Journal of 
Agriculture and Forestry Sciences
 
___
______________________________
______________
 
ISSN 2320
-
6063
 
Vol. 
1
(
6
), 
1
-
7
, 
July 
(201
3
)
          
 
          
Res. J. Agriculture and Forestry Sci.
 
 
International Science Congress Association
 
 
7
 
Conclusion
 
An assessment of toxicity studies of 
Aphis
 
craccivora
 
and its 
predator,
 
Micraspis discolor
 
based on different insecticides, 
Neem S
eed Kernel Extract, 
chlorpyriphos
 
and spinosad,  reveals 
that the percentage of adult mortality was increased in 
chlorpyriphos
 
treatment compared to that of  spinosad 
treatment.
 
This is due to the highly toxic nature of this 
insecticide, which stimulates t
he central nervous system of the 
aphids, bioaccumulate in its tissues resulting in ultimate death
21
.
 
Thus, it is concluded that all the studied insecticides proved 
effective against the aphids but the toxicity studies of the 
insecticides was observed from 
maximum to minimum in the 
following order, C
hlorpyriphos
 
� Spinosad �Neem Seem 
Kernel Extract.  C
hlorpyriphos
 
is a persistent organic pollutant 
which persists in the environment for extended periods of time, 
increasing the exposure risk of many non
-
target 
animals
17
.
 
On 
the basis of present findings it could be concluded that 
azadirachtin based extracts may successfully be integrated, as a 
part of pest management programme. Azadirachtin and spinosad 
are easily degradable and ecofriendly and the treated crops
 
are 
safe for human consumption. 
So the botanical insecticides neem 
and microbial pesticide, spinosad could be as alternatives to 
chemical insecticides for the control of 
Aphis 
craccivora
 
to 
reduce the pesticide load in the environment. The results of the 
investigation would indicate a significant potential for these 
eco
-
friendly pesticides that could be used as an alternative to 
synthetic insecticides.
 
 
 
References
 
1
 
Ascher K R.S., Klein M & J. Meinser .,Azatidirachtin, a neem 
formulation
, 
acts  on nymphs of
 
the western flower thirps
,
 
Phytoparasitica
, 
20,
 
305
-
306
 
(1992)
 
2
 
Ascher K.R.S.
,
 
Nonconventional insecticidal effects of 
pesticides available from the Neem tree, 
Azadirachta
 
indica
. 
Arch. Insect Biochem
,
 
Physiol
,
 
22,
 
433
-
449
 
(1993)
 
3
 
Banks C.J.
,
 
The behaviour 
of individual conccinellid larvae of 
plants
, 
Brit
.
J. Anim. Behav
,
 
5,
 
12
-
24
 
(1957)
 
4
 
Barnby M.A. 
and
 
Klocke 
J.A.
, 
Effects of azadirachtin on the  
nutrition and  development  of the Tobacco Budworm, 
Heliothis virescens (Fabr) (Lepidotera: Noctuidae)
,
 
J. Insect
 
Physiol
,
 
33
, 69
-
75
 
(1987)
 
5
 
Blaney W. M., Simmonds M.S.J., Ley S.V., Anderson J.C
.
 
and
 
Toogood 
P.L.
, 
Antifeedant effects of 
azadirachtin
 
and 
structurally related compounds on lepidopterous larvae
,
 
Entomol. Exp. Appl
,
 
55,
 
149
-
160
 
(1990)
 
6
 
Chapman R.F., Bernays
 
E.A. and Simpson S.J.
,
 
Attraction and 
repulsion of the aphid, 
Cavariella aegopodii
, by plant odors
,
  
plant 
odors
,
 
J. Chem. Ecol
,
 
7,
 
881
-
888
 
(1981)
 
7
 
Dadd R.H.
,
 
Feeding behaviour and nutrition in grasshoppers 
and Locusts
,
 
Adv. Insct. Physio, 
1,
 
47
-
109
 
(1963)
 
 
8
 
Dixon A.F.G.
,
 
An experimental study of the searching 
behaviour of the predatory coccinellid beetle, 
Adalia 
decempunctata
 
(L.)
,
 
J. Anim. Ecol,
 
28,
 
259
-
281
 
(1959) 
 
9
 
Dixon A.F.G. and Wratten S.D.
,
 
Laboratory studied
 
on 
aggregation, size and fecundity in the 
black bean aphid, Aphis 
fabae Scop
,
 
Bull. Ent. Res
, 61
, 
97
-
111
 
(1971)
 
10
 
Dougnon T.V., Bankole H.S., Edorh A.P., Dougnon T.J., 
Klotoe J.R., Loko F. and Boko M.,
 
Cytotoxicity of Leaves
 
and 
Fruits of 
Solanum macrocarpon
 
Linn (Solanaceae) against 
shrimp larvae (Artemia salina Leach)
,
 
Res. J. Recent Sci., 
2(5),
 
6
-
9
 
(2013)
 
 
11
 
Khadgi N., Shrestha B.B. and Siwakoti M.
,
 
Resource 
assessment and Habitat analysis of Daphne bholua in Bhujung 
of Annapurna Conservation Area, Central Nepal
,
 
Res. J. 
Agriculture & Forestry Sci.,
 
1(4),
 
1
-
9
 
(2013)
 
12
 
Mondal Debashri and Mondal Tamal
,
 
A review on efficacy of 
Azadirachta in
dica 
based biopesticides: An Indian perspective,
 
Res.
 
J.Recent Sci
.,
 
94
-
99
 
(2012
)
 
 
13
 
Miller 
J.R. and Strickler K.L.
,
 
Finding, accepting host plants
,
 
Chemical Ecology of insects
,
 
(Eds.)
,
 
Bell W.J. and Carde R.T.
,
 
127
-
157
 
(1984)
 
14
 
Pathak P.P. 
and
 
Krishna
 
S.S.
, 
P
ostembryonic development and 
reproduction in 
C
rocyra
 
cephalonica
 
(station) (Lepidotera: 
Pyralidae) on exposure to Eucalyptus and Neem seed oil 
volatiles
,
 
J. Chem. Ecol,
 
17,
 
2553
-
2558
 
(1991)
 
15
 
Schmutterer H.
,
 
Properties and potential of natural pesticides 
fro
m the neem tree,
 
Azadirachta indica
. Annu. Rev. Entomol
, 
35
, 271
-
297
 
(1990)
 
16
 
Sanya E.A., Ahouansou R.H., Bagan G., Vianou A., 
Hounhouigan D.J.
, 
Effect of so
me Pretreatments of Afr
ican 
Locust Bean Seeds (Parkia biglobosa) on Delivered Efficiency 
of a Devised Dehuller
,
 
Res. J. Recent Sci.,
 
2(6),
 
43
-
51
 
(2013) 
 
17
 
Slanksy F. Jr. and Feeny P.P.
,
 
Stabilization of the rate of 
nitrogen accumulation  by larvae of the cabbage butterfly on 
wild
 
and cultivated food plants
,
 
Ecol. Monogr
, 
47,
 
209
-
228
 
(1977) 
 
18
 
Stark J.D.
,
 
Comparison of the impact of a Neem seed kernel 
extract formulation, Margosan 
–
O, and chlorpyrifos on non
-
target invertebrates inhabiting turf grass
,
 
Pesticide Sci
,
 
36,
 
293
-
299
 
(1992
) 
 
19
 
Todd G.W., Getabum A
.
 
and Cress D.C.
,
  
Resistance barely to 
the green bug, 
Schizaphis
, 
graminum
: Toxicity of phenolic and 
flavinoid compounds and related substances, 
Ann. Ent. Soc. 
Am
, 64,
718
-
722
 
(1971) 
 
20
 
Tomer Neetu
,
 
D
etermination of Chlorinated Pesticide in 
Vegetables, Cereals and Pulses by Gas Chromatography in 
East National Capital Region, Delhi, India
,
 
Res. J. Agriculture 
& Forestry Sci.,
 
1(1),
 
27
-
28
 
(2013)
 
21
 
Verker
k R.H.J. 
and
 
Wright 
D.J.
, 
Biological activity of Neem 
seed kernel extracts and synthetic azadirachtin against larvae 
of 
Plutella
  
xylostella
 
L. 
Pesticide Sci
,
 
37
,
 
83
-
91
 
(1993)